厦门大学EMBA毕业文,写计算机毕业文厦门

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YangtzeUniversityCollegeofArtsandSciences

毕业论文

题目名称:英汉思维差异对翻译的影响

题目类型:研究论文

学生姓名:张三

系部:外国语系

专业班级:英韩5112班

指导教师:韩翠萍

时间:2016年10月16日~2016年5月16日

TheEffectofThinkingModesonTranslationBetweenEnglishandChinese

AThesis

PresentedtotheFacultyofForeignStudies

YangtzeUniversityCollegeofArtsandSciences

ByZhangSan

InPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirements

FortheDegreeof

BachelorofArts

May2016

Supervisor:HanCuiping

目录

任务书I

开题报告Ⅱ

指导教师评审意见Ⅲ

评阅教师评语Ⅳ

答辩会议记录Ⅴ

英文摘 要Ⅵ

中文摘 要Ⅶ

正文目录Ⅷ

论文正文1

ce,inaccuratetranslationcausedbyimproperdictionorwordydictionregardlessofthesyntacticstructuraldifferences.

Inordertooidtheaboveproblems,sufficientculturalbackgroundinformationwillbehelpfulandstrategiessuchasshiftingtranslation,graphictranslation,backwardtranslationshallbeadopted.Itcanbethusconcludedthattranslationcannotaffordtoneglectdifferencesinthinkingmodesandthatthecorrespondingstrategymaygreatlyhelpimprovethetranslationquality.(中文摘 要的对应译文)

[Keywords]ChineseandEnglishthinkingmodes,differences,linguisticembodiment,translationstrategies,

(注意:关 键 词与中文对应,3-5个,词与词之间用分号分开,除专有名词外,其他单词首字母不大写)

中文摘 要

思维,语言与文化有着紧密的联系.语言是思维的载体,思维是语言的内容,这一切都统一在文化的总框架内.中西思维方式的差异一直是国内外学术界关注的重点研究课题.国内贾德江,刘宓庆,西方的R.Kaplan等学者对此课题进行了深入的研究,并取得了令人瞩目的成果.中英思维方式的差异可以从很多方面进行分类.中国人的思维总的来说是如重意象的直观性,对事物规律的归纳总结和重视主体的感受和内在逻辑性联系的意合,体现为主螺旋型上升趋势,具有明显的模糊性.而英国人的思维方式则重理性与分析性,注重对客体的临摹与再现,所以其思维呈直线状态,具有精确性的特点,强调严谨的外在形式的融合等.当然不同的学者也从其他方面进行了分类.这些思维方式在两个民族的语言上也有充分的体现,从词汇,句法,语义,语法和文体上分别呈现了明显的差异.对这些差异的忽视往往导致中英翻译中出现各种错误,如过于拘泥于原文的字面,忽略两种语言的句法特征,忽略不同的视角和文体特色,或者由于句法差异而导致在目的语的累赘表述等.

厦门大学EMBA毕业文,写计算机毕业文厦门参考属性评定
有关论文范文主题研究: 开题报告类论文范文 大学生适用: 研究生论文、硕士毕业论文
相关参考文献下载数量: 32 写作解决问题: 本科论文怎么写
毕业论文开题报告: 论文提纲、论文小结 职称论文适用: 核心期刊、职称评中级
所属大学生专业类别: 本科论文怎么写 论文题目推荐度: 优质选题

为了避免上述问题,通常要有充分的文化背景知识,然后采取转换翻译策略,包括词类,词义,句法结构等的转换,同时也可以采取临摹翻译法和反向翻译法等策略.由此可见,思维方式的差异对翻译质量的影响不容忽视,必须采取相应的策略,以提高翻译质量.(400-450字)

[关 键 词]中英思维方式,差异,语言表现,翻译策略

(摘 要和关 键 词应充分反映和概括论文的精神,并与英文摘 要相对应,关 键 词3-5个,词与词之间用分号分开)

Contents

IIntroduction1

IILiteratureReview2

2.1AristotelianSchool:Metaphor—aDeviceofRhetoric2

2.2ThePlatonicSchool—LanguageisMetaphorica5

2.3TheStudyofMetaphorFromthe20thCenturytothePresent6

IIIOnSimilarity7

VIOntheMechaniofMetaphor15

4.1Black'sInteractiontheory15

4.1.1IntroductiontotheInteractionTheory15

4.1.2SomeDefectsoftheInteractionTheory16

4.2LakoffianConceptualMetaphorTheory19

4.2.1ThePhilosophicalBasisoflakoffianTheory19

4.2.2LakoffianTheoryontheMechaniofMetaphor21

4.3ConceptualIntegrationTheory29

4.3.1AnIntroductiontotheConceptualIntegrationTheory29

4.3.1.1FourMentalSpaces29

4.3.1.2ThreeProcessesofBT33

4.3.1.3OptimalityPrinciplesofBT34

4.3.2TheAdvantagesofBTinSolvingtheParadoxofFormerTheories34

4.3.2.1TheGenericMentalSpace34

4.3.2.2TheBlendingSpaceandEmergentStructure35

4.3.2.3TheOtherAdvantagesofBT40

VConclusion42

Bibliography45

Acknowledgements46

(本目录仅为格式模板.实际目录请确保内容和页码与正文完全相符.

目录格式说明:

大标题:三号,TimesNewRoman,加粗,居中

一级标题:小四,TimesNewRoman,不加粗,不缩进

二级标题:小四,TimesNewRoman,不加粗,缩进一个字母

标题:小四,TimesNewRoman,不加粗,缩进约3个字母

四级标题:小四,TimesNewRoman,不加粗,缩进约6个字母)

论文各级标题大小写原则

各级标题保持一致,各个单词的首字母符合大写原则的话都大写.

1.题目的第一个单词首字母要大写,

2.冠词首字母都不需要大写,

3.字母多于三个(不含三个)的介词,连词首字母要大写,

4.名词,动词,形容词,副词,代词,感叹词首字母要大写,

5.大写所有英语中要求大写的单词.如月份,人名,地名等等.

这几条原则的优先性是递减的,也就是说,如果几条原则之间出现了矛盾的情况,应优先实用前面的原则.如:如果题目的第一个单词是冠词或不多于二个字母的介词时也应该大写.

IIntroduction

Languagebynatureistheembodimentofhumanthoughtsandthoughtsinturnisthementalreflectionoftheworldaroundusonbasisofsomeanalysis,generalization,judgmentandreasoning.Animalshethoughtsaswell,buttheirawkwardsoundormunicationarefarfrombeinglanguage.Languageisthereforecloselyrelatedtoandsupportedbyhumanthoughts.Thatistosay,languagehasnobasioritsexistenceifthereisnothought.Butthoughts,thoughaccessiblebyvarioueans,arebestrepresentedinlanguageandcanthusbestfulfillitsobligationstothespeakersbysuchmeans.Languageasanarbitrary,phoicandmorphologicsemioticandaudiosystemofmunication,haslongdefinedashumanandisthusthemostconvincingdistinctivefeaturesofhumanbeingromanimals.

Thethinkingpatternsareoneofthemostimportantcuesinculture.Itiscloselyrelatedtoculturesandembodiesthecharacteristicsofculturalpsychology.Besides,themodesofthinkingalsoarecloselyrelatedtolanguage.Differentmodesofthinkingareembodiedinlanguage.

(i)Therelationshipamonglanguage,cultureandthought

Languageispartofculture.SuchasChineselanguageispartofChineseculture.Eachcountryhasitsownlanguageinaspecificculture.However,theirrelationshipisnotjustbetweenpartandwhole.Languageisthecarrierandcontainedofculture,aanyaspectsofculturecanbeexpressedinlanguage.Asamirrorofculture,languageisstronglyinfluencedandshapedbyculture.Inall,languageandculturearecloselyrelated,eachinfluencesandshapestheother.

Languageisaninstrumentusedinthemunicationofthought.Itiscloselyrelatedtothought,too.Itrepresentsthoughtandisinfluencedbythought.Inturn,thoughtisinfluencedbylanguage.Inaddition,thoughtisdeterminedbyculturalvalue.Theirrelationshipswitheachotherseemmoreplex.Inaword,eachoftheminfluencesandshapesothers.Theyareseenasthreepartsofawhole.

(ii)DifferentwaysofthinkingbetweenChineseandWestern

"Thewaysofthinkingisquitedifferent,actually,peopleliveincertainareahetheirownwayofthinking.Itconnectstovariouskindsoffactors,suchasgeography,history,nationandsoon.Thewaysofthinkingaretheimportantreasonofculturaldifference.Itincludesknowledge,concepts,methods,languageandcustomandsoon."(DengYanchang:1997,483)Thesefactorsinfluenceeachother,whichledtodifferentwaysofthinking.Therefore,thewaysofthinkinghetheirowncharacteristics,likegeographycharacteristics,socialcharacteristicsandnationalcharacteristics,etc.Accordingtogeographycharacteristics,itcanbedividedintoHannation,EnglishandAmericannation,etc.HerewewillmakeaparisononChineseandWesternwaysofthinking.

"Thedifferentwaysofthinkinginfactarethereflectionofculturaldifference.Peoplewholiveindifferentareaoralongtimehedifferentculturalcharacteristics,therefore,theirwaysofthinkingaredifferent."(ibid484)

Undertheinfluenceofdifferentgeographyenvironments,lifestyles,customsanddifferentculturalvalues,theEastandWestaredifferentfromwaysofthinking.Letusexaminesomephenomena:

Inthecollege,aforeignteacheristeachinginaclass,heistalkativeandexpressive.Everyonelistenstohiminterestingly.Suddenly,hestopsandasksthemaquestion.However,thestudentsdon'tknowhowtoanswer,theydon'ttelltheanswers.Theteachergotalittleangrybuthehadnoideaontheirbehior.ThissceneoftenhappensinChineseclassroom.Intheforeigners'eyes,theyconsiderthatkeepingsilentisnotagoodwaywhenwecontactwithothers.Evenyoudon'tunderstand,youshouldsaysomethinginsteadofkeepingsilent,asitoftenisregardedasrudeandimpolite.

ThereasonliesinthattheEastandtheWestheadifferentwayofthinking.TheEasternpeopleareconservative,introvertandinactive,theyputmoreemphasisonharmony,andtheylikemonandstablelife,whiletheWesternpeoplearemoreopen-minded,extrovertandactive,theylikechangeablelifeandthustheyemphasizeonpetition.Inthisway,theirdifferentwaysofthinkingleadtotheirdifferentunderstandingoneachother'sbehior.IfChineseseesomebodyistalkative,theycouldthinkheorshewantstoextenthimselforherselftobethefocusofeveryone.

InChina,weseldomseeacouplemakingclosecontactinpublic.Theyarealwayswalkingsidebysideinacertaindistance.WhileintheWest,thecouplewillopentothepublic,theyarefreetoshowthattheyareacouple.Eventheymeettheacquaintances,theyalwaysgivethemahugorkissasgreeting.Controversially,Chinesewillshakehandswiththeirfriendsbutseldomhugthem.Theydon'tkissthemastheyregarditasanintimateactionbetweenhusbandandwife.

ThereasonwhytheeastandthewestpeoplebehesodifferentlyisthatpeopleliveintheEastemphasizeonethicprincipal,morality,theyfocusondirectfeelingandimage.Thewesternerocusonfreedom,democracyandemphasizeonindividual.

Inall,Chinesetraditionalwayofthinkinghasitsowncharacteristics.Itemphasizesthemorality,harmonyofthesociety,itpromotesthecollectivi,responsibilityanddevotionandsoon.Thewesternwayofthinkingalsohasitsowncharacteristics.Itemphasizesonlogicandscience,individualachievement,itpromoteshumanright,equalityandsoon.

ThegreatgeographicdistancebetweentheBritishandtheChinesepeoples,togetherwiththeacpanyingdifferentlivingconditionsandculturalenvironments,hauchaccountedforthediverseconceptualpatternsofthetwonations.Suchconceptualdifferenceshebeendulyreflectedinandshedgreatinfluenceonthetwolanguages.Translationbetweenthetwolanguagesisconsequentlyfarbeyondlinguisticrendering,butmoreofculturaltranerringandexchangeofconceptualpatterns. IILiteratureReview

AccordingtoJiaDejiang,"thinkingpatterns,thoughtcharacteristicsandthinkingstylesarethephilosophicalmechanioflanguageproduction.Languageactuallyattachescloselytothethoughtthatistheprofoundmechani."(JiaDeJiang:2002,166)Thinkingpatternsarethedeep-rootedmechaniintheformulationanddevelopmentoflanguage,whichinturnpromotesthespecialtiesincertainconceptualpatterns.Languageisthecarrierofreflectionandabstractionofreality,andmodeofthoughtistheconsciousactivitywhenpeoplereflectandrecognizetheobjectivereality.Thedifferencesbetweenthinkingpatternsarethemainreasonsthatresultinthedifferencesoflanguageforms,sothestudyofthetransitionbetweendifferentlanguagesshouldbeginwiththestudyofmodesofthoughtincloseconnectionwiththeculturesandthelanguages.

Anotherwell-recognizedChineselinguisticscholarLiuMiqinghasofferedapparentlydifferentbutessentiallysimilarremarksontherelationsbetweenlanguageandthought.Hisstandingisthatmodesofthoughthascontrolledoverlanguages(ibid.35),andthatlanguagesaretheconcretemanifestationofmodesofthought.

English-Chinesemodesofthoughthetheirowncharacteristicsinthinkingcore,thinkingpattern,cognitionhabitsandthinkingprinciples.AsatoolformunicationthebasicattributeofEnglishandChinesearethesame.Butbecauseoftheinfluenceoftheirowncultures,therearemanydifferencesbetweenthetwo.TheEnglishindividualiandtheChineseentirety,hypotaxisasagainstparataxis,aspassivevs.active,staticvs.dynamic,andimpersonalvs.personal,helongbeenrecognizedasthemostdistinctivefeaturesofthetwoconceptualpatternswhicharejustifiedbytheapparentlydifferentculturesandlivingmethods.AsEugeneNidaonceputsit,themostimportantdifferentcharacteristicbetweenChineseandEnglishisthedifferenceofparataxisandhypotaxis.(ZhangSijie&,ZhangBoran:13)LiuMiqingholdstheopinionthathypotaxisandparataxisarethe"uniquecharacteristic"forEnglishandChinese.(ibid.13)Conceptualpattern,ormodeofthought,iseryplicatedabstractconceptionconnectedcloselytophilosophy.Englishpeoplepreferindividuali,whichleadtotheirsubordinatingtherecognizedobjectsintoallparts.WhileChinesepeoplelikeentirety,theyprefertotaketheworldasawhole.Thinkingpatternshebeenclearlyreflectedonlanguages,asaresultofwhichEnglishishypotacticandChineseisparatactic.

Allmetaphors,Aristotlebelieves,fallintoatleastoneofthesefourcategories,althoughanalogymetaphorsarethemostpleasing.Aristotlealsoholdsthatmetaphorcanmaketheprosaicstylecharming,andstressesthatitcanonlybeconfinedtopoetry(ibid.72).Thisperspectiveleadstothelatertheoristakingdistinctionbetweenpoeticlanguageandeverydaylanguage.EspeciallyinChapter21and22ofPoetics,Aristotlestatesthateveryword"iseithercurrent,orstrange,ormetaphor,orornamental,ornewlycoined,orlengthened,orcontracted,oraltered"(ibid.70).ItisobviousthatAristotleclassifieetaphorsaslyingoutsidenormallanguageuse.Theyaredeviantoraberrantformsofdiscourse.Healsoholdsthatmetaphorhasnocognitivevalueandierelyanembellishmentoflanguage(Kittay,1965:1).AlsointhischapterofPoetics,heelaborateshowmetaphorsareunusualanddiscussestherelationshipbetweenmetaphorandgenius,viewingmetaphorasatalentofepicpoetsandtragedians:


Thegreatestthingbyfaristoheamandofmetaphor.Thisalonecannotbeimportedbyanother,itisthemarkofgenius—fortomakegoodmetaphorsimpliesaneyeforresemblances(Aristotle,1890:72).

R.KaplanfoundthatintheirEnglishwritingEnglishlearnersofdifferentnationsshownationaltendenciesinaccuratecorrespondencewiththeirnativetongueandnationalthinkingpatterns.Forinstance,theChineseandtheKoreanlearnersarespiralwhilethenativeEnglishlearnersaremorestraightforward,andthoseofLatin(FrenchandSpanish)culturalbackgroundaretortuousinapproachingthetheme,theRussianstendtobeparallelandsegmentalandthoseofArabianandHebrewdisplayparallelthinkingmodes.Inthisaspect,aChinesescholarZhangDaishaninhisChineseThinkingTendencies(Zhangandel:xxx,xx)summarizesthedifferencesbetweentheEnglishandtheChineseinthreeaspects:unitvs.opposite,integrityandanicvs.concreteandmechanicalaswellascirculativevs.straightforward,withtheformercharacteristicoftheChinesewhilethelattertypicaloftheEnglish.TheyholdthattheChinesearecharacterizedintheirthinkingpatternsbytheirintrospection,pursueofsimilarity,circulation,stabilizationandvisualrepresentation.AnotherChinesescholarZhangGuangminginhisConceptualThinkinginTranslationbetweenEnglishandChinese(ZhangGuangming,xxx,xx)concludesthatsuchdifferencesarebestdisplayedinfouraspects,e.g.linguisticconcept,prehensionvs.reasoning,prehensivevs.analyticandunityvs.oppositeness.LianShunenginhisessay"OntheThinkingPatternsoftheChineseandtheWesterners"developsthedifferencesintotenaspects.(LianShuneng:xxx,xx)

AccordingtoRongKaiming(1989,30),thinkingmodesrefersto"anestablishedsystemofthinkingpatterns,thinkingmethodsandthinkingproceduresofthesubjectintheirreflectionoftheobjectiveworld."Thoughtisaintrinsicprocessofhumanbrainsinunderstandingandmemorizingthephysicalaswellasnon-physicalworldthatwelivein,andisaspecialanicfunctionofthebrain.Thecloseinterrelationbetweenlanguageandthoughtfurtherdenotesthelinguisticdifferencesbetweendifferentnationsastherealizationoftheirthinkingmodesorconceptualmodes.Thereforedifferentlanguagesofdifferentnationscanwellexplaintheirdifferentthinkingmodes.AsFuLeionceputit,"等theEasternersareessentiallydifferentfromtheWesternersintheirthinkingmodes.TheEasternerstendtobegeneral,inductive,implicitanddenotativewhiletheWesternersaremoreanalytic,intricateanddetailedanddescriptive.Thetwomentalitiescanhardlybebined.(FuLei:xxx,521).Inthissense,translationbetweenEnglishandChineseisapparentlyalinguistictransitionbutessentiallymentaltranerringbetweentwothinkingmodes.Toomuchpracticeheprovedthatsuchtranerringofthinkingmodesarenotonlynecessaryandapplicablebutalsoanefficientmeanstopursuequalitytranslation.

Sofarmuchhasbeendoneandsaidontheinterrelationshipbetweenlanguageandmodesofthought(orconceptualpatterns,aspreferredinthepresentthesis).ThemostoutstandingisSapir-Whorfhypothesis.Muchcriticizedthough,thehypothesisioretrustworthyinthatitoffersanewinsightintotheinterrelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought.Itsstronersion,theso-called"languagerelativity",holdsthatlanguagehasdeterminingeffectsonmodesofthought,whichiormedrelativelytolanguagesanddifferentlanguageswillbringondifferentthinkingpatterns(ZhaoXia&,XuRuifeng:xxx,35)isstillmoreoftenthannotatopicofdebateinthelinguisticmunitywhichconvincinglyprovesitarking-stonesignificanceinlanguagestudy.(2004,xxx)

differencesamongscholars'attitudesorclassificationofthethinkingpatternsbetweenthetwonationsarenotessentiallydiversifiedbutratherlieinthedegreeofdetailedtypology.Actually,theissuecanbeapproachedandconsideredfromvariousviewpoints.Herearebutafewinstanceorillustration.

3.1DifferencesBetweenChineseandEnglishThinkingPatterns

3.1.1VisualThinkins.RationalThinking,

Thevisualizedthinkingmode,orempiricalsynthesizesthinkingpatternasZhengYanhong(ZhengYanhong,2003,xx)putsit,establishestheessentialdifferencebetweentheChineseandtheEnglishnationwhoforstherationalanalyticthinkingmodes.TheChineseisperceptualintheirprehensivethought,buttheEnglishandotherWesternnationslayhedevelopedtheirownrationalandanalyticthinkingmodes.Intheempiricalprehensivethinking,thehumanandthenature(includingsociety)areconsideredasananicwhole,withthe"beautygathers"(ortheunionofheenandhuman)asitsbasiccharacteristic.Thedoctrineof"yinandyangasone"(or"masculineandfeminineelementsinonebody")intheChinesephilosophy,notdenyingtheoppositionthough,laysgreateremphasisontheaspectofunity.ButtheseparationofGodandhuman(ortheisolationoftheheenlyfromtheearthly)intheEnglishandtheWesternersphilosophystressestheoppositionaspectthoughnotobviouslydenyingtheunity.Suchdifferencehasbeentypicalofthetwodifferentthinkingmodes.TheChinesestressesthewholeandabstract,andtheWesternersstresstheponentsandthespecific,theChineseforssynthesiswhilethewesternersanalysis.Forinstance,whentalkingabouttime,theChinesealwaysstartfromgeneralunitsandmoveontoallerunits,buttheEnglishisopposite,andthisisalsotrueoftheirexpressionoflocations.Evenintheiracquaintanceintroduction,theChinesewouldlistthetitles(whole)first(fromthehighertothelower)beforereferringtothespecificnames(individual),buttheEnglishwouldannouncethespecificnamefirst(individual),thenlistasuccessionofdutieromthelowertothehigher.

Thewesterners,esp.theEnglish,hebeenaccustomedtofuzzythinkingsincetheancientagesunderthephilosophicaldoctrinesoftheancientGreekandRomanthinkers.Insuchphilosophicalconcept,logicandformaltestimonyisthechiefconcernandconcepts,judgmentandreasoningdominatethethinkingproceduresandthusgreatemphasishasbeenlaidontheobscurereflectionontheworldaroundus.That'swhyvariousconcepts,methodsandprinciplesaboundinwesternphilosophyandessays.

TheChinese,ontheotherhand,seemmoreforiteofconcreteimagesandtendtoreflectontheworldfromtheviewpointofspecificobjects.Theywouldratherdescribetheobjectstogeneralizedprinciplesandinspirations.ThattogreatextentaccountortheimagethinkingmodesoftheChinese.E.g.

S1a.Butthisveryformulationisindicativeoftheunderstandingattitude.

S1b.但这一说法本身就清楚地表明了其基本态度.

S2a.Hiswearinessandincreasingheatdeterminedhimtositdowninthefirstconvenientshade.

S2b.他疲惫不堪,天气也越来越炎热,于是他下定决心一碰到舒适的阴凉处就坐下休息.

S3a.Shortnessoftimehasrequiredtheomissionofsomecountries.

S3b.由于时间不够,他取消了对某些国家的访问.

IntheabovespecimenofS1a,S2aandS3a,,thesubjectsarenotanypersonorobjectbutrathersomestateorconceptsalthoughthesentencesaremoreperson-oriented.YetintheChineseversion,thepersonsconcernedareusedasthesubjectstodirectlyrevealthespeaker'sconcern.

EvenwhentheChinesemeanstoexpresssomeattitudeorimpression,theymaynotstateitdirectlybutratherusemetaphororindicationsbymeansofsomespecificimages.E.g.

S4a.Hehadsacrificedwithlessvisibilityinthepolicydecision.

S4b.在决策过程中,他已经不那么抛头露面了.

S5a.我的心里七上八下的.

*S5b.Therearesevenupsandeightdownsinmyheart

S5c.Mymindisgreatlyupset.

Theconceptof"visibility"inS4aisreplacedbytheimageexpressionof"抛头露面"inS4binwhich"头"(head)and"面"(face)areusedtoshowhispresenceorvisibilityintheoccasions.InS5aandS5b,thespecificnumbersof"七"(seven)and"八"(eight)intheChinesearereplaceby"upset"inEnglishbecausetheChinesephrase"七上八下"justusethetwonumberstovividlydescribethegetchaosinthespeaker'ind.YetS5b,thedirectrenderingsoundratherconfusingtoEnglishreadersaewofthemcanunderstandwhytherearesuchthingsas"sevenupsandeightdowns"inaperson'ind.

Suchinstancesarejustabundantinourdailyspeech,nottomentionthenumerousclassicessaysandliterarymasterpiecesandESTpapers.

3.1.2GeneralizingThinkins.AnalyticalThinking

ThedifferencesofphilosophyandculturalbackgroundbetweenEnglishandChineseheresultedintherethinkingoftheHannationalityasanentiretythinkingcountryandtheEnglishpeopleindividualcharacteristicsofthinking.

TheChinesepeopleareconcernedmorewiththeirownbodiesinexpressingemotions,sointuitionthinkingisthemainfeatureoftheirmodeofthought,forwhichpeoplestudyobjectsasawholeandemphasizeentirety.Chinesephilosophyissystematicalnaturali.(MaoGuirong:xxx)

IntheEnglishthinkingpattern,individualiisgreatlyemphasized.TheEnglishpeoplelinktheirownemotiontoplaaryinfluenceandthenaturalelements,sotheypreferanalyticallogicthinking.Targetobjectsaresubordinatedintoallpartsinordertobescrutinized,which,ofcourse,mayleadthemtoplacetheponentsbeforethewholewhentheytrytoknowsomething.(ibid.420)

Fromthehistoricalviewpoint,wecaneasilyfindthattheHannationalityhaslongestablishedsuchthinkingmodesevensincetheancientages.TheBookofChangesputforwardtheframeworkforthetheoryofentiretywhichconsidersthenaturalphenomenonandthehumanaffairsasawhole.That'swhythebookproposestopredicthumanfortunesbyyinandyangpolesconsistingoftheeight(andlaterfurtherdevelopedintosix-four)gua(divinatorysymbols)system.Suchadoctrinewaslaterperfectedbydaoiinitschaoticandpurestatus,bytaijiinitsdaoandreasoning,andthenbymetaphysics,Buddhi,andbyrationalioftheSongDynasty.That'swhyintheChineselanguage,sensehasalwaysbeenthedominatorwhiletheexpressionformshasbeenmuchneglected.ButtheWesterners,esp.theBritishnationhasalwaysstressedanalysisandrationalityintheirthinking.Intheirminds,individualiistheprimeconcernandisalwaysdependent,whichhasresultedintheirdualisticphilosophy.Followingsuchperceptions,materialsandspiritsareseparated,justlikehumanandnature,contentandform.SuchthinkingmodescandatebacktoDecartes'conceptionelementaliandlaststoRussell'slogicalelementali,whichhasgreatlycontributedtothetypologiesinnaturalsciencesinthelate1500sEuropewhichtendstosegmentthenatureandallobjectstotheinfiniteallerunits.Inmodernlinguistics,theICanalysishascutourlanguagetomorpheme.

S6a:尽管她很年轻,但她懂的东西比你多.

S6b:Youngassheis,sheknoworethanyou.

S6c:Thoughsheisyoung,sheknoworethanyouknow.

S7a:她气的连话都说不出来.

S7b:Soangrywasshethatshecouldn'tspeak.

S7c:Shewassoangrythatshecouldn'tspeak.

S8a:只有这样才能解决问题.

S8b:Onlyinthiswaycanyousolvetheproblem.

S8c:Theproblemcanonlybesolvedthisway.

TheChinesesentencesclearlydemonstratethedifficultyinunderstandingChinesewithoutnecessarygeneralization.S6c,S7candS8careliteraltranslationoftheChinese,aostChineselearnersofEnglishmoreoftenthannotwoulddo.SuchtranslationsrevealthattheChineselearnerstendtogeneralizetheEnglishexpressionswithoutsufficientattentiontotheanalyticalnatureofthetargetlanguage.

SimilarinstancejustaboundinbothEnglishandChineseliteratureatvariouslevelsrangingfromdiction,semanticconnotation,denotation,syntacticstructurestocontextualpreferences.It'sabsoluteunnecessaryandimpossibletolistthemonebyonehere.

3.1.3Subject-orientedThinkins.Object-targetedThinking

Itisalsocategorizedasintentthoughtandthecognitionthought.TheChinesehabituallytakethepersonorsubjectastheobjectintheirintentthoughtwhiletheWesternerstendtotakethenatureastheobjectfortheircognitivethought.Theintentthoughtisintroverted,thecontraction,emphasizesthemainbody,thereforeChineselinearitydelaysextremelylimitedly,warequentlycounter(fronthaspointedout),Thecognitionthoughtistheextroversion,theradiation,theemphasisobject,thereforeEnglishextremelylittlecounterextendstheexpansion.ThuslinguistMr.WangLispokeChineseistherulebypeoplelanguage,Englishisthegovernmentbylawlanguage.Chineseexpressesthesubjecttakethemainbodyasthecenterwithtostatethetopictherelations,butfrequentlydoesnotindicateinitiativeorpassive,theprominentsubjectthenon-subject,oftenisthesubjectwithstatesthetopicpoundadvancement,thuulti-shortphrases,simplesentences(withoutclauses),Thesubjectcustomperson,usessendsoutthemovementonowninitiativeorhasthingofthelifetofillapositionthesubject,thusthemulti-verbs,fortheverb.Englishoftenusescannotsendoutthemovementorthelifelessthingwordsandexpressionsonowninitiativemakesthesubject,passivesentence,lonerse,poundsentence,Asentencebeesthestraightlinedevelopmenttakeerbasthecenter,thusthemulti-nouns,forthenoun,multipurposefunctionwordsandsoonpreposition,conjunction.E.g.

S9a:托马斯·杰弗逊对美国的教育事业做出了巨大的贡献.

S9b:AmericaneducationwasagreatdebttoThomasJefferson.

S10a:AcademicallythefactthatinsectscouldbesterilizedbyexposuretoX-rayhadbeenknownsince1916,whenanentomologistbythenameofG.A.Runnerreportedsuchsterilizationofcigarettesbeetles.

S10b:1916年,一位名叫G.A.朗纳的昆虫学家报告说,可以通过X光照射使烟草甲虫不育,从那时起,人们就已经从理论上知道可以这样使昆虫失去生育能力.

S11a.Anotherideasuddenlystruckme.

S11b:我突然想到另一个主意.

S12a.Thesecondworldwarbroughthimrapidbattlepromotion.

S12b:他在二战中屡建战功,晋升很快.

TheaboveEnglishsentences,withtheabstractsubjects,soundquitenaturaltoEnglishreaders,butwouldsoundquiteawkwardtotheChinesereadersifliterallytranerredintoChinese.TheChinesetranslation,ontheotherhand,beginswiththepersonalsubjectandsoundsquiteoothandprehensibletotheChinesereaders.

3.1.4TortuousThinkins.StraightThinking

IntheWesternphilosophy,ithasbeenalastingconventiontopursuealternatecontrastinitsreasoning,thusestablishingastraightforwardthinkingmode.ButtheChinese,ontheotherhand,hebeenmoreaccustomedtotheharmonyandunityoftheworld,esp.thatbetweenthenatureandthehumans,andaremorelikelytoadoptbothsidesofamatter,thusestablishingatortuousthinkingmode.Asreflectedintheirspeech,theEnglishtendtosticktothepointattheverybeginningofthespeech,offeringastraightandfrankthemeofthespeechbeforeproceedingontopresenttherelevantdetailsandacpanyingsituations.Thatmaywellaccountforthesyntacticfeaturesofapactheadandalongandheyendingwiththeemphasisatthefrontpartofthesentences.AndtheChinesesentences,duetothespeakers'thinkingmodes,willpresenttherelativeinformationingreatdetailbeforehittinguponthetheme,areaboundinexpressionswithalongheadwithashortending.e.g.

S13a:Imetwithmymiddleschoolmateattheentranceofthetheaterat7:30yesterdayevening,whenIhen'tseenforyears.

S13b:昨天晚上7点半在剧院门口,我遇到了我多年未见的中学同学.

Inconsequenceofsuchthinkingmodes,theChinesewouldanizetheirspeechinlogicorderbytellingthecausesbeforedescribingtheconsequences,andofferingsomeprepositionsbeforethedeductivereasoning,anddescribingthefactsbeforeofferingthespeaker'sattitude.Andeveninthespaciousorsequentialorder,theytendtolistfromthemoregeneraltothemorespecific.Aorthesequenceofimportanceorsignificance,it'snotdifficulttoseewhytheywouldbeginwiththemostimportantorsignificantandthenmoveontothelessimportantorlesssignificant.TheEnglishspeakers,withtheassistanceofconjunctionsandprepositions,canbemoreflexiblethantheChineseinthisaspect.

S14a:Hedidn'tebecausehewasill

S14b:他因为下雨而没来.

S15a.Andthereareotherswhosaytheirsuspicionswerearousedovertime,asthe55-year-oldMr.Williams,whoappearedonweekendsturnedoutinfinesuits,broughtuppropertybyproperty.

S15b:也有人说他们的怀疑与日俱增,因为55岁的威廉姆斯先生总是西装革履地在周末出现,写下一笔又一笔地产.

S15c:55岁的威廉姆斯先生总是西装革履地在周末出现,写下一笔又一笔地产,因此,也有人说他们越来越怀疑了.()

tothefurtherworldaroundhim.Thisisividreflectionoftheirpracticallivingstyles.AsZhaoWeijun(xxx,xx)putsit,50%oftheChinesesentencesorspeecheollowtheorderofknowntounknown.E.g..

S16a:Whatonearthdoyoumeanbytalkingabouttheseatthatmomentwhenwewereallinhighspirits

S16b:当大家兴高采烈时,你却谈论这些问题,到底什么意思

S17a.Ithinkasuccesuloldageiseasiestforthosewhohegreatimpersonalinterestsinvolvingappropriateactivities.

S17b:我认为,如果老年人对于个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣,并参加适当的活动,他们的晚年是最容易过的好的.(YangSheying,etel,2016,70)

IntheEnglishversioninS16aandS17a,theEnglishspeakerfocusesontheleadingconcept(orthespeaker'sconcern)attheverybeginningofthesentencesbeforepresentingthereadyinformation.YettheChineseversioninS16bandS17b,theChinesespeakerbeginswiththereadyinformation("大家兴高采烈"inS16band"老年人对个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣,并参加适当的活动"inS17b)beforetouchingthosedistantinformation.

3.1.5FuzzyThinkins.AccurateThinking

Fuzzythinkingioreemphaticofthegeneralimpressionorthegeneralprincipleofreflectionandisnotsomuchconcernedwiththespecificdetailsoftheobjectsortherelativeinformation.That'oretypicaloftheChinesethanoftheWesterners,esp.theEnglish.TheChinesehaslongbeeninfluencedbysuchafuzzyphilosophy.Evenintheremoteclassic"LaoZi",dao(principle)hasbeenassumedasthegeneraloriginoftheworldandheen.Butthebookdescribeddaoassomethingfuzzyandshakywithoutanyembodimentandyetwithreferencetoandimplicativeofeverythingunderthesun.TheninZhuangZi'sarguments,daowaurtherappliedtoexplaintherelationshipamongthingsintheworld,inwhichunityandharmonyamongallobjects(includinghumanbeings)wasgreatlyextended.AccordingtoZhuangZi,theworldaroundusisinprehensibleindetailbutperceivableingeneral.ThisisvividlyembodiedintheChineselanguage.Forinstance,thereisnoarticleinChinese.Whenwerefertosomespecialitems,thereaderoraudiencehetoguesswhichspecialitemisbeingreferredtoinlightofthecontext.Anotherinstanceistheomissionofnumericalbeforenouns,e.g."冰箱里有鸡蛋和西红柿"------Thereareeggsandpotatoesinthefreezer.ButhowmanyarethereinitNowheretolearn.StillanotherexampleisthecontextualcohesioninChinesedependsheilyontheinternalrelationshipbetweenparagraphsandsentences,andconjunctionsorprepositionsareoftenunailable.E.g."他吃完饭去了学校"------Hefinishedmealwenttoschool(Hewenttoschoolafterdinner).

TheEnglish,incontrast,laygreatemphasisontheaccuracyofdescriptionandspeech.Suchthinkingmodesarealsodeeprootedintheirphilosophicalconvention.Thewesternershealwaysshownmoreinterestinscienceandtechnologythatdemandaccuracyandprecisionandobjectiveness.Andsohebeentheirlanguages.Whenevertheytalkaboutsomething,theytrytobeaccurateandsyntacticallywell-constructedandtherearemorefunctionalwordsinEnglishthaninChineseessays.

InChineseweheaword"气"(qi)-----物质之气,人生性命之气,能动的实体之气,正气.ButhowshallweunderstandtheseqiinEnglishActuallytheyaregreatlydiversifiedinmeaning,referringtomaterialforce,air,vitality,vitalenergyandintegrity.

S18a:此刻自己也跟了进去,一则宝玉不便,二则黛玉嫌疑.罢了,倒是回来的妙.(《红楼梦》第七十二回)

S18b:IfIgoinnowafterhim,heissuretofeelembarrassedandsheissuretostartimaginethings.Itwouldbebettertogobackwithoutseeingher.(Chapter72,ADreaminRedMansions)

It'snotdifficulttoseethattheChineseversionisquiteobscureinmanycases."跟了进去"-----followinside,butfollowwhomTheauthordoesn'ttellasit'snotnecessarytotellinChineseandit'suptothereadertounderstandfromthecontext.ButtheEnglishversionputsitclearly----"afterhim,Baoyu".Whatdoes"不便"(inconvenient)meanhereWhatkindofinconvenienceisitAndwhatkindof"嫌疑"(suspicion)isreferredtoTheChineseversionisquiteambiguousandevenconfusing.Butthereadercanunderstandit.YetitshouldnotbeliterallyrenderedintoEnglish.InsteadtheabovequestionsarebothansweredintheEnglishversion."不便"(inconvenient)meansBaoyu'sembarrasenttotalklovetohisloveinfaceofathirdperson.And"嫌疑"(suspicion)referstoDaiyu'ssuspicionofBaoyu'ssincerityinhislove-------whyshouldBaoyugetsomeonearoundifhereallymeanstoexpresshistruelovetoherDaiyumayimaginethatBaoyuhasgottheguyaroundonpurpose------findreasonsnottoexpresshisloveforherbecausehehasnoloveforheratall.SotheEnglishversionreads"starttoimaginethings",asvividrepresentationoftheChineseversion.

3.1.6Hypotaxisvs.Parataxis

Thedifferencesbetweenhypostasisandparataxishehelpedtoformthetwolanguagestheirownstyles.

IntheparisonsandtheorystatedaboveweheknownthatEnglishuseanyconjunctions,prepositionsandotherconnectivemeanstomakelinksbetweenphrasesandwords,becauseofwhichthelanguageiorelogicalandbetteranized.SoMaoRongguiholdstheopinionthatEnglishisakindoflanguagethatiullofvirilequalities,forthecharacteroflinearlogic,anizationandration,whichhasledittobe"masculinity".(LarryA.Samovar:xxx)

Ontheotherhand,Chinesehasgotitsownbeauty,whichdoesn'tpaytoomuchattentiontologicaldescriptionoftheobjectivereality.Furthermore,itisnotclingingwiththecriterionofthelanguagestructure.Chineseisakindoflanguagethatshowsthecharacterof"femininity",andthecharmingofitliesinitsloosestructure.(HuWenzhong:xxx)

Fromtheparisonsabovewemayseethatthedifferencesbetweenhypotaxisandparataxisheresultedinthedifferentsentencestructuresandlanguageexpressionforms.Theformingofthesedifferences,inmyopinionmustbetracedbacktothediversityoftheirthinkingpatterns,fortheyarecloselyconnectedwiththewaytorecognizetheworldandtojudgewhatisthemostimportant.

S19a.你学习努力,就能通过考试,不努力就通不过考试

*S19b.Youwillworkhardandyoucanpasstheexams.Youwon'tworkhardandyouwillfailintheexams.

S19c.Ifyouworkhard,youwillpasstheexam,otherwiseyou'llfail.

S20a.他是个很有经验的商人,他从事外贸好多年了.

*S20b.Heisanexperiencedbusinesan.Hehasengagedinforeigntradeformanyyears.

S20c.Heisanexperiencedbusinesanbecausehehasengagedinforeigntradeformanyyears.

S21a.他们之间了解的多一些,相处得就好一些了.

S21b.Nowthattheyknowmoreabouteachother,theygetonbetter.

TheabovespecimensareconvincingenoughindemonstratinghowtheChineseemphasizehypotaxisintheirspeechwhiletheEnglisharemoreparataxis-considerate.

3.1.7SomeOtherClassifications

Asdifferentscholarayapproachthisissuefromdifferentviewpoints,thedifferencesbetweentheChineseandEnglishthinkingmodescanbefurthercategorizedinsomeotheraspects.Actuallytherearesomanyfactorstoconsiderindistinguishingthethinkingmodesofthetwonationsthatitisneitherpracticalnornecessarytodiscussthemallhere.Thefewbriefedbelowarejustafewsandsontheseashore.

a.BackwardThinkins.PredictiveThinking

IthasbeenfoundthattheChinesetendtoconsidermattersinpredicativeorderwhiletheEnglishprefersbackwardthinking.(ZhouFangzhu:xxx,95)Forinstance,theChinesewouldusuallygivereasonsbeforepresentingtheconsequenceswhiletheEnglishwouldratherstatetheresultbeforegivingthecauses.E.g.

S22a:Shewasamazedthatheshouldarrivesosoon.

S22b:他来得真快,让她惊奇不已.(Hehadarrivedsosoonandthissurprisedherverymuch)

S23a:Herealizedthatshewascryingbecauseofwhathehadsaid.

S23b:他认识到他的一番话让她哭了.(Herealizedthatbecauseofhiswordsshecried)

Andsuchtendenciescanbeexaminedinmanyotheraspectssuchastimesequence,physicaldirections,psychologicaldistances,etc.

b.IntrospectiveThinkins.ExtroversiveThinking

ItisgenerallyagreedthattheChineseareintrospectiveintheirthinking,whichisbestillustratedbysomewidelyacceptedChinesesayingssuchas"常思自己过,闲谈莫论他人非"(Trytoreflectonyourownfaultswhenspared,butnevergossiponothers'mistakewhilechatting),"修身,齐家,治国,平天下"(upgradeyourselftosupportthefamily,helpthestateandbenefitthepeople).Inmostcases,modestyhasbeenoneoftheessentialmoralsoftheChinese,whichservesasanotherinstanceoftheintrospectivethinkingoftheChinese------theyshouldneverboastofbeingthebestbutshouldalwaysstriveforthebetterbyfindingflawsintheirworkorbehior.TheEnglish,incontrast,striveforsuccesswithgreatself-confidenceandpraiseromothersareusuallyacceptedimmediatelyandparentsarealwaystryingtofindprogressintheirchildren."Makingadifferenceistheorderoftheday"hasbeenmonbeliefformostEnglish-speakingnations.Evenwhenpresentingsomeprinciples,theChineseprefertoimplyorindicatewhiletheEnglishwouldstatethemstraightforwardwithoutanyhesitation.

c.dialecticalThinkins.LogicalThinking

AnotherspecialtyoftheChinesethinkingmodeliesinthedialecticalelements.TheChineseseldomconsiderthingsisolatebutratherdialectical.TheeasiestinstanceistheChinesephrase"舍得"("affordtolose"inthemonsense)whichactuallyimpliesthatyoushouldfirstofalloffersomethingtoothersifyoumeantogetsomethingback.TogiveandtotakearetwooppositeactionsbutinChinesethecontradictoryactionsarebinedinonephrase"舍得"------totakebygiving.TheEnglishhestrictsenseoflogicandthingsareblackorwhite,nomiddlepositionorbinationofthetwo.

d.collectiveandselectivethinking

Incorrespondencetootheraspectsoftheirthinkingmodes,theChineseprefercollectivethinkingwhiletheEnglishselective.Thatis,theChinesewouldfocusonthegeneralimpressionorfinalresultorthedominatingtendencywithoutcaringmuchaboutthedetailsofmatters.YettheEnglishwouldfocusonthedetailsbeforeconcludingthefinalresults.Suchthinkingmodesheaccountedforthedifferentpolitical,economic,culturalandevenscientificandtechnologicaldevelopmenttrailsinthehistoryofthetwonations.Forinstance,theChineseareart-orientedinsuchtechniquesascooking,garments,paintingandmusic,andaboveall,personalpoliticalprogresswhiletheEnglishheprovedgreateradvantageintechnologicalsciencessuchaachinery,mathematicalanalysisandsimilartechniquesdemandinggreatfocusonaccuratemeasuringandcalculationofdetails.

Inspiteofthegreatdifferencesbetweenthetwonationsintheirthinkingmodes,similaritiesareobviousandeasilyailableintoomanyaspects.Butthisisnotthefocushereanddoesnotdemandordeserveanydetailedargumentationhere.

3.2LinguisticFeaturesResultingfromDifferencesofThinkingPatterns

Theeffectofdifferentthinkingmodesonlinguisticconstructionisalsoapparentinthelexical,syntactic,contextualandgrammaticalfeaturesofthetwolanguages.

3.2.1LexicalFeatures

Morphemesaretheessentialunitsoflanguage.Sovocabularyusuallyrevealstheclassificationofthespeakersofalanguage.Thatis,theyhedividetheobjectsaroundusaccordingtodifferentcriteria.Forinstance,wehe"黑色金属"and"有色金属".Butcantheybetranslatedinto"blackmetal"and"coloredmetal"literallyOfcoursenot.TheChinese"黑色金属"refersto"ferrouetals"and"有色金属"tonon-ferrouetals.ThieansthattheChinesedistinguishmetalromtheexternalcolorswhiletheEnglishclassifythemonlightoftheexistenceofironinthemetal.Anotherinstancemaybetterexplainthedifference.InEnglishwehe"whitemeat"and"redmeat"whicharenotailableinChinese.ThatmeanstheEnglishheclassifiedanimalmeatinawaypletelydifferentfromthatoftheChinese.

Suchexamplesarejusttooeasytofindinthevocabularyofthetwolanguages."炒"----stir-fry,"预备党员"----probationerpartymember,"hightable"-----大宴会中高出其他桌子的餐桌,hillbilly----美国南部山区的人,etc,arejustafew.Allthesearehardlydirectlytranslatableandneedtobeexplainedwithsomeadditionalexplanationastheyarenotdirectlyailableinthetargetlanguage(TL).

Englishwordformationtakesvariouormssuchasaffixation,poundingandconversion,blending,clippingacronyms,backformationandadoptionfrompropernouns.ButChinesewords(characters)neverexperiencesuchformationprocess.Theirgrammaticalfunctionsandmeaningsaredecidedbytheirrelationswithotherwords(characters)intheircontextandarethuoreflexibleandcontext-dominated.InEnglish,wehe"we,our,us,ours"and"I,my,me,mine"forthefirstpersonal,butinChineseweheonlyoneword(character)"我"(wo3,Iorme)andbyaddinganotherword"的"(de4,of)wegetthephrase"我的"(wo3de,myormine)toindicatethepossessiverelationshiporadding"们"(men2,pluralformforallnouns,esp.personalpronouns)toget"我们"(wo3men2,weorus)forthepluralformof"我"andwecangetanotherphrase"我们的"byaddingbothwords"们"and"的"after"我"togetthepluralpossessiveformoftheword"我".ThisimpliesthattheChinesemorphemesenjoymoreliberalbinationwithothermorphemestoestablishnewandmoreplicatedphrases.ButtheEnglishmorphemes,whenformingnewwords,orevenconductingdifferentgrammaticalfunctions,willfollowstrictrulesandeventakepletelynewforms.

Suchdifferencesinlexicalfeatureshealsocausedgreattroubletotranslators.Actuallyintoomanycasestranslationisimpossible,andtheoriginalmeaningisonlypartlyconveyedviametaphororexplanationasnootheralternativeisailableforsuchtranslation.

3.2.2.2SyntacticFeatures

WangYingthefamousprofessoroncesaidthatsomelinguisticslivelypareEnglishstructureas"grapestructure",forthetrunkofthegrapeisveryshortwithmanyfruitattachedonittoformverylongsentences.Differentfromthat,theChinesesentencesareshorterwithphrasesinsequentialorderbythemselvesjustlikethebamboojoints.SoChineseiscalled"bamboostructure".(HuWenzhong:xxx,2)

ThemostmonlyusedwordorderforEnglishisthestrictSVO.Englishsentencestakeverbsastheircores,whicharetheircentercontrollingalltherelationshipsbetweenthesentenceponents.Exceptthepredicateverballtheverbstaketheformofindefiniteformtomakedifferencefromthepredicateverb,andmanyprepositionsandconjunctionsareusedtoconnectthephrasescontained.ForChineseitusuallymakesgooduseofverbstogetherinonesentencetopresentthethingsonebyoneaccordingtothetimewhenthethingshappened.(ibid.57)

Structuralilinguisticspromotesthetheoryofconstituentincision,whichmeanstoseparatethesentencestophraseunities.(ibid.31)Moreovertheyprefertheconstituentanalysis,whichmeanstoconnectallofthelanguageponentstootherswhentheyareanalyzed.ThiskindofmethodwillchangetheEnglishtotherecognizedobjectromstructures.AnEnglishsentenceonglobalenergysupplyreads:

S24a:Renewablesourcesthenwillhelptoaddressthesocialinequalityacrosstheg